Introduction to Chicago/Turabian Style

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), published by the University of Chicago Press since 1906, is a comprehensive and highly regarded style guide used widely in academic and professional publishing. It offers detailed guidance on a vast range of topics, from grammar and punctuation to document formatting and, crucially, source citation. Kate L. Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations is a complementary work, specifically designed to present CMOS guidelines in a way that is accessible and tailored to the needs of students and academic researchers. While Turabian may offer slight variations or more concise explanations for student work, both guides share the same core citation principles. The most recent editions are The Chicago Manual of Style, 18th edition (published in 2024), and Turabian’s A Manual for Writers, 9th edition (which corresponds to CMOS 17th edition).

Chicago/Turabian style is particularly prevalent in the humanities—such as history, literature, art history, and religious studies—and is also used in some social science disciplines. Its thoroughness and flexibility make it suitable for a wide array of scholarly endeavors, accommodating diverse source materials.

Notes and Bibliography (NB) System

Author-Date System

Key Characteristics and Philosophy

• Thoroughness: It offers detailed guidance for a vast array of source types.
• Flexibility: Especially within the Notes and Bibliography system, there's an adaptability to handle complex or unusual sources.
• Readability: Footnotes/endnotes in the NB system can keep the main text cleaner, while Author-Date provides quick, unobtrusive references.
• Scholarly Tradition: It reflects a long-standing tradition in academic publishing, prioritizing meticulous source documentation.

Looking Ahead: The choice between the Notes and Bibliography system and the Author-Date system often depends on disciplinary conventions or specific instructions from an instructor or publisher. In the following sections of this guide, we will provide detailed instructions on how to cite various types of sources using both the Notes and Bibliography and the Author-Date systems of the Chicago/Turabian style. We will explore the specific formatting for notes, bibliography entries, in-text citations, and reference list entries for common source types.

Chicago/Turabian: Notes and Bibliography System vs. Author-Date System

• Requires a Bibliography section at the end of the paper.
• The bibliography lists all sources cited in the notes, and sometimes may also include other sources consulted by the author, even if not directly cited (though this depends on specific instructions).
• Entries are listed alphabetically by the author's last name.

2. Content and Detail of Citations/Notes

• Notes and Bibliography (NB) System:
  • The first note for a particular source provides full bibliographic information (author, title, publication details, page number).
  • Subsequent notes for the same source are typically shortened (e.g., using the author's last name, a shortened title, and the page number). Chicago style also allows for the use of "Ibid." for immediately consecutive citations of the same source and page, though this is becoming less common in favor of shortened citations.
  • Notes can also include discursive comments or additional information that doesn't fit neatly into the main text, offering a space for elaboration beyond simple citation.
• Author-Date System:
  • Parenthetical citations are always brief, providing only the author's last name, year, and specific page number(s) if needed. They serve as direct pointers to the full entry in the reference list.
  • There is no space for discursive commentary within the parenthetical citation itself. Any such commentary would need to be part of the main text or, rarely, in a separate content footnote (though content footnotes are less common in typical Author-Date usage).

3. End-of-Paper Documentation

• Notes and Bibliography (NB) System:
  • Requires a Bibliography section at the end of the paper.
  • The bibliography lists all sources cited in the notes, and sometimes may also include other sources consulted by the author, even if not directly cited (though this depends on specific instructions).
  • Entries are listed alphabetically by the author's last name.
• Author-Date System:
  • Requires a Reference List section at the end of the paper.
  • The reference list includes only those sources that were cited parenthetically in the text.
  • Entries are listed alphabetically by the author's last name.

4. Formatting of Entries in Bibliography vs. Reference List

• While many core elements are the same, there are subtle but important formatting differences in how sources are listed in an NB-style bibliography versus an Author-Date style reference list.
• A key difference is the placement of the year of publication.
  • In NB bibliography entries, the year of publication typically appears later in the citation, often after the publisher's name (for books) or after the journal volume/issue details (for articles). The main emphasis is on the author and title first. Punctuation often involves periods separating major elements.
  • In Author-Date reference list entries, the year of publication is placed prominently right after the author's name (or names). This is because the year is a key part of the in-text parenthetical citation. Punctuation often involves periods separating major elements, with the date being a distinct element near the beginning.

5. Disciplinary Focus and Common Usage

• Notes and Bibliography (NB) System:
  • Predominantly used in the humanities (e.g., history, literature, art history, philosophy, religious studies).
  • Well-suited for works that rely on a wide variety of source types, including primary sources, archival materials, and sources where extended commentary within the notes might be beneficial.
• Author-Date System:
  • Commonly used in the social sciences (e.g., sociology, anthropology, political science, education, business) and many natural and physical sciences.
  • Often preferred in disciplines where the timeliness of research (indicated by the year) and the frequency of citations make the concise parenthetical style more efficient.

6. Primary Purpose and Flexibility

• Notes and Bibliography (NB) System:
  • Offers great flexibility for providing rich detail directly at the point of citation and for incorporating supplementary remarks without cluttering the main text. The bibliography provides a comprehensive overview of sources.
• Author-Date System:
  • Designed for efficiency and conciseness in referring to sources, with a clear link between the brief in-text pointer and the full source details in the reference list.

Which System to Choose?

The decision to use the Notes and Bibliography system or the Author-Date system is usually determined by:

• Disciplinary conventions: Follow the prevailing style in your field of study.
• Instructor or publisher requirements: Always adhere to any specific guidelines provided for your assignment or publication.
• Nature of the sources: The NB system can be more adaptable for very diverse or non-standard sources.

In conclusion, both systems provide robust frameworks for academic citation. The Notes and Bibliography system offers detailed, often discursive notes and a comprehensive bibliography, favored in the humanities. The Author-Date system provides concise in-text references and a focused reference list, common in the social and natural sciences. The subsequent sections of this guide will provide specific examples for citing various source types under both of these Chicago/Turabian systems.

Formatting Footnotes and Endnotes (Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography System)

In the Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography (NB) system, footnotes or endnotes are used to cite sources and occasionally to provide additional commentary that doesn't fit neatly into the main text. Proper formatting of these notes is essential for clarity and academic rigor.

1. Footnotes vs. Endnotes: What's the Difference?

• Footnotes: Appear at the bottom (the "foot") of the same page where the corresponding superscript number appears in the text. Readers can quickly glance down to see the citation or comment.
• Endnotes: Are compiled in a list at the end of a chapter or, more commonly for student papers, at the end of the entire document before the bibliography. They are titled "Notes."
• The choice between footnotes and endnotes often depends on the requirements of your instructor, publisher, or the length and nature of your work. The formatting of the content within the note itself is the same for both. Many word processing programs can easily switch between footnotes and endnotes.

2. Creating Notes in Your Document

• Superscript Number in Text:
  • When you cite a source or make a comment, insert a superscript number (e.g., ¹, ², ³) in your main text.
  • This number should be placed after the word, phrase, or quotation it refers to.
  • It should also be placed after any punctuation mark (like a period, comma, or quotation mark), with the exception of a dash (—).
  • Example: The theory was groundbreaking,¹ but it faced criticism.²
  • Note numbers should run consecutively throughout your paper (or, in some longer works like books, they may restart with each chapter).
• Word Processor Function:
  • Use your word processor's built-in "Insert Footnote" or "Insert Endnote" function (usually found under a "References" or "Insert" tab). This will automatically:
  • Insert the correct superscript number in the text.
  • Create a corresponding numbered space at the bottom of the page (for footnotes) or in the endnotes section.
  • Manage the sequential numbering for you.

3. Formatting the Notes Area (Whether Footnotes or Endnotes)

• Note Number:
  • In the note itself (at the bottom of the page for footnotes, or in the endnotes list), the note begins with its corresponding number.
  • This number is full-sized (not superscript) and is followed by a period and a space.
  • Example: 1. Author Name, Title of Work...
• Indentation:
  • The first line of each note (footnote or endnote) should be indented from the left margin, typically by 0.5 inches (the same as a standard paragraph indent).
  • Subsequent lines of the same note should be flush with the left margin of the note area (not hanging indent).
• Spacing:
  • Within a single note: Notes are generally single-spaced.
  • Between separate notes: A blank line (or a standard single line space provided by the word processor between paragraphs) should appear between one note and the next. This helps distinguish them clearly. (This is a common practice for student papers and aligns with Turabian guidance.)
• Font:
  • Use the same font as your main text (e.g., Times New Roman, Calibri).
  • The font size is typically the same as the main text (e.g., 12-point), though some guidelines allow for a slightly smaller font for notes (e.g., 10-point) if preferred by the instructor or publisher. For consistency, using the same size as the main text is a safe default unless specified otherwise.

4. Content of Notes – A Brief Overview

The specific elements and their order within a note depend on the type of source being cited (e.g., book, journal article, website). Detailed formats for different source types will be covered in subsequent sections. However, here are general principles:

• Full Note (First Citation of a Source):
  • The first time you cite a particular source, the note should contain the complete bibliographic information. This typically includes the author's full name (in normal order: First Name Last Name), the title of the work, publication details (place of publication, publisher, and year for books; journal title, volume, issue, year, and page numbers for articles), and the specific page number(s) being cited.
• Shortened Note (Subsequent Citations of the Same Source):
  • After a source has been cited in full once, any subsequent notes referring to the same source should use a shortened format.
  • This usually consists of the author's last name, a shortened version of the title (if the title is more than about four words), and the page number(s).
  • "Ibid.": The Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition and later) and Turabian (9th edition) discourage the use of "ibid." (from the Latin ibidem, meaning "in the same place") for consecutive citations of the same source. Shortened citations are preferred for clarity, especially in electronic formats.
  • Example of a shortened note: 2. Smith, Shortened Title, 45.
  • If citing the same work immediately after a shortened note, you might further shorten it to just the author's last name and page number if no ambiguity arises: 3. Smith, 52.
• Discursive Notes (Substantive Notes):
  • Notes are not just for citations. You can also use them to provide additional commentary, explanations, clarifications, or to refer readers to other sources or related discussions.
  • These substantive comments can be included in the same note as a citation or can be standalone notes. Use them judiciously to avoid distracting the reader too much from the main text.

5. Placement of Endnotes (If Used)

• If you are using endnotes instead of footnotes:
• They should appear on a separate page (or pages) at the end of your document, before the bibliography.
• The page should be titled "Notes" (centered, no bold, italics, or quotation marks, unless part of a larger heading style for chapters).

6. Visual Consistency

Strive for consistency in formatting all your notes throughout your paper. This contributes to the professionalism and readability of your work.

Creating a Bibliography (Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography System)

In the Chicago/Turabian Notes and Bibliography (NB) system, the bibliography is an essential component that complements your footnotes or endnotes. It provides a comprehensive, alphabetized list of all the sources you have cited, and sometimes other relevant works you consulted during your research. A well-formatted bibliography allows readers to easily see the breadth of your research and to locate the sources for themselves.

1. Purpose of the Bibliography

• To provide full publication details for every source cited in your notes.
• To offer an organized, alphabetical overview of your research base.
• Optionally (and if specified by your instructor or publisher), to list other relevant works consulted, even if not directly cited in a note (in such cases, a title like "Selected Bibliography" or "Works Consulted" might be used). For most student papers, "Bibliography" includes sources cited.

2. Placement and Title

• Placement: The bibliography begins on a new page at the very end of your paper, after any endnotes (if endnotes are used instead of footnotes).
• Title: The title of the page should be "Bibliography".
• Center the title at the top of the page.
• Do not bold, italicize, underline, or put the title in quotation marks (unless following a specific heading style for a larger work).
• Leave two blank lines (or follow standard double-spacing if your entire paper is double-spaced) between the title "Bibliography" and the first entry.

3. General Formatting Guidelines for the Bibliography Page

• Order of Entries:
  • List entries alphabetically by the author's (or editor's, compiler's, translator's) last name.
  • If a work has no credited author or editor, alphabetize it by the first significant word of its title (ignoring initial articles like "A," "An," or "The").
• Font and Margins: Use the same font and margins as the rest of your paper (e.g., 12-point Times New Roman, 1-inch margins).

4. Formatting Individual Bibliography Entries

• Author Names:
  • The first author's name is inverted: Last Name, First Name Middle Name/Initial.
    Example: Smith, John David.
  • If a source has multiple authors, invert only the first author's name. Subsequent authors are listed in normal order (First Name Last Name), separated by commas, with "and" before the last author.
    Example: Smith, John David, and Jane Alice Doe.
  • For works by the same author(s) listed consecutively, use a 3-em dash (———.) or three hyphens (---.) followed by a period in place of the author’s name(s) for the second and subsequent entries. List these works alphabetically by title.
    Example: Smith, John David. The First Book. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020.
    ———. A Second Volume. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2023.
• Indentation (Hanging Indent):
  • Each bibliography entry must use a hanging indent.
  • The first line of the entry is flush with the left margin.
  • Subsequent lines of the same entry are indented by 0.5 inches (or one tab stop).
  • Most word processors have a function to create hanging indents easily (often in the paragraph formatting settings).
• Spacing:
  • Individual entries are generally single-spaced internally.
  • A blank line (or a standard single line space created by pressing Enter once) should appear between the end of one entry and the beginning of the next.
• Punctuation:
  • Major elements within a bibliography entry (e.g., author, title, publication information) are typically separated by periods.
  • Pay close attention to the specific punctuation required for different source types, as this will be detailed in later sections.
• Titles:
  • Titles of longer works (e.g., books, journals) are italicized.
  • Titles of shorter works (e.g., articles, book chapters) are usually enclosed in quotation marks and not italicized (except when they contain a title that would itself be italicized, like a book title within an article title). Use headline-style capitalization for titles.

5. Key Differences from Footnote/Endnote Citations

6. Content: What to Include?

• Sources Cited: Your bibliography must include all the sources you cited in your footnotes or endnotes.
• Works Consulted (Optional): In some cases, particularly for longer research projects, your instructor or publisher might ask for a list of "Works Consulted" or a "Selected Bibliography" which includes sources you found relevant and useful for your research, even if you didn't cite them directly. If you do this, ensure the title of your bibliography reflects this (e.g., "Selected Bibliography"). Always clarify expectations with your instructor or publisher.

7. Visual Consistency

Maintain consistent formatting (indentation, spacing, punctuation style for similar source types) for all entries in your bibliography. This meticulous attention to detail is a hallmark of the Chicago/Turabian style.